Working in partnership with others in education

Mary Warnock emphasized on the importance of placing the assorted forms of disablements frequently leads to different sorts of particular educational demands. She points out that autistic spectrum differs from other childhood conditions and affect an unusual manner of sing the societal universe and the form of development ( Cigman, 2007 ) . The Particular Educational Needs codification of Practice devotes a chapter to parents saying â€Å" working in partnership with parents which portray how LEAs and schools should back up parents during statutory appraisal. † Parents must be allowed to take portion in the determination devising procedure when bespeaking a statutory appraisal ( DfES, 2001 ) .The Education Act ( 1996 ) suggests that LEAs have the duties in run intoing the particular educational demands of kids. This procedure begins when a referral is issued to the LEA bespeaking a statutory appraisal in order to find how to run into the demands of kids with particular demands . This procedure takes about 26 hebdomads to be carried out and completed. However, if the Local Authorities disagrees with the referral or petition, parents have the legal right to appeal to the Particular Educational Needs Tribunal ( SENT ) , ( Farrell, 1997 ) . There are assorted jobs and issues that parents experience when seeking educational aid for their kids with particular demands. First, the clip frame for an entreaty to be accepted and acknowledged by the courts takes about six hebdomads. As a consequence of the long waiting period, parents frequently become stressed and defeated. Sometimes the procedure period is excessively long therefore giving rise to other terrible jobs, such as diagnosing and intervention for illustration if a kid is diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) at a certain age ( 0-16 ) but at 17 old ages the diagnosing will be classified as something else. Conduct upset is an illustration. Applying independently for a statutory appraisal can be really nerve-racking for parents ; a long ‘waiting game ‘ and parents may get down to miss assurance in the system ( Cowne, 1996 ) .A In most instances parents find it hard to acquire the procedure started, holding to ‘fight ‘ to acquire their kid assessed ( Taylor, 2003 ) .A The Education Act ( 1996 ) states that it is the LEA ‘s duty to organize the demands to run into a kid ‘s demands as have been identified by the statutory appraisal and underlined in the statement.A In treatments held by the Audit Commission with parents, the bulk agreed that whenever the school failed to mention their kid for an appraisal, they found it thwarting and nerve-racking. A parent in peculiar commented â€Å" I found it hard to get down the procedure † . I had to implore†¦ ‘ ( Taylor, 2003 ) . Some parents felt there is a immense hold in get downing the procedure whereas others experience clip troubles whilst the procedure begins.A The House of Commons ( 2006 ) reports that there is a great concern in the length of clip it takes to measure and treat a statement ; this in its ain right can hold terrible effects on a kid ‘s instruction. Lack of parental partnership besides seemed to hold posed jobs for parents while seeking educational support for their SEN kids. Throughout appraisal of particular demands proviso, parents have a right to take part to the full, nevertheless they can merely make so if appropriate information about the system and procedure they are prosecuting in are given to them.It besides helps if the professionals genuinely listen to the parents. Whitaker ‘s research ( 2007 ) ascertain issues for parents of kids with Autistic Spectrum Disorders ( ASD ) in mainstream schools and found that parental partnerships were the beginning of many dissatisfaction. He states that â€Å" Parents placed a high value on the willingness of school staff to listen and take earnestly any concerns that they may hold about their kid ‘s experiences and advancement. Conversely aˆÂ ¦failure to take parental concerns earnestly was a powerful cause of dissatisfaction peculiarly where parents felt they were seen as needlessly crabbed. † ( Wall, 2003 ) Parents do go vulnerable and stressed if they are sing troubles in obtaining adequate information and support from schools and Local Authorities. ( Robson, 1989 ) declared that â€Å" a successful partnership is based on equality, whereby each spouse recognises and benefits from the endowments, accomplishments expertness and cognition of the other. At times one spouse may follow a comparatively inactive function, in other state of affairss a more active function. † The Lamb Inquiry ( DCSF, 2009 ) besides highlighted that parents preponderantly wanted a system that worked for them and their kids: Parents have told us that good, honest and unfastened communicating is the most indispensable component for constructing assurance and good relationships. Face to confront communicating with parents and handling them as equal spouses with expertness is critical to set uping and prolonging assurance ( Wall, 2003 ) . This clearly shows how hapless communicating between schools and Local governments can be strenuous for parents. In an article a parent shared her ambitious experiences in having appropriate educational support for her 11yr old boy. Christine Grainger, a female parent from Surrey, says voyaging the system on behalf of kids with particular demands is hard and time-consuming. Christine ‘s 11-year-old boy Dean, has dyslexia, dyspraxia and attention-deficit hyperactivity upset ( ADHD ) and she had a conflict to acquire the specializer learning he needed. Christine says she is disillusioned with the system. At the terminal of his response twelvemonth, she was told Dean had jobs and was being put on the SEN registry. When he was finally given a statement stating he needed 20 hours of support, Christine was told the school did non hold the specialist staff required to back up him and was asked to happen a different school â€Å" First of all Dean did n't desire to go forth his school because he ‘d do some particular friends and it was besides hard seeking to happen a school that would run into all of Dean ‘s demands â€Å" We found we could n't merely take him to any school, I had to seek and happen a school that would accept him with all the jobs that he ‘s got † ( Tomlinson, 1981 ) . Inclusion has been identified as one of the cardinal issues that parents find unsatisfactory. It is of import because it affects kids with and without disablements. Harmonizing to Taylor ( 2003 ) the issue debated in 1970 ‘s, was whether handicapped kids learn best in incorporate or unintegrated categories. Conversely some parents felt that they were given excessively much information and non adequate clip to understand. Most parent ‘did n't understand what the information meant in English†¦ ‘ experiencing ‘bombarded ‘ ( Taylor, 2003 ) . It is said that it is the Local Authority ( LA ) responsibilities to guarantee that a proposed statement is sent out to parents no subsequently than 12 hebdomads after the statutory appraisal Begin. The statement consists of six subdivisions in which parents find it difficult to understand what it all entails ( Cigman, 2007 ) . Problems persist even once the statement has been issued. Most parents found out that their kids had received a statement but failed to understand what each subdivision was approximately. One parent stated that † she will be maintaining an oculus on the school to guarantee that the kid ‘s statement is followed through † ( Taylor, 2003 ) . The most hard job that parents come across is ; acquiring their kid assessed, particularly if the kid was referred by the school. When a parent realizes that their kid seems to be sing troubles whilst acquisition, parents should first reach the school.A If the school agrees that there might be jobs, with the parents consent they will register the kid on the school action /school action plus docket. These are intercession plans that assist kids with educational demands to make the set marks in class.A If parents find these plan unsuitable for their kids ‘s demands referral for a statutory appraisal is otherwise available.A Merely a parent, the school, wellness authorization or societal services section is allowed to bespeak statutory assessment.A It is ever advisable that parents should advise the school foremost. However, some parents have problem speaking to their kid ‘s school because ‘the school wo n't accept that kid has particular educational demands ‘ ( Moore, 2004 ) . There is a procedure that parents has to follow when seeking appraisal for their kid. Wolfendale introduced a instance survey scenario, where the parents approached the educational psychologist when they came to the school for a everyday visit, they found that the school had ne'er informed the psychologist about their kid ( Bell, 2003 ) In fortunes where parents and school do non hold, a parent may near the Local Authorities ( LA ) independently. However, the LA may be loath to get down the procedure for fiscal grounds. The Audit Commission wrote a study ‘Statutory appraisal and statements of SEN: in demand of reappraisal? ‘ the Audit Commission looks at public money and the best manner to utilize it.A It writes that the demands for statements are lifting and ‘statements are intended for kids with higher degrees of demand†¦ based on a statutory appraisal ‘ ( IPSEA, 2001 ) . Geting a statutory appraisal is cost effectual and may non help the kid ‘s demand, this is why it is difficult to acquire LA to hold to the referral, ‘ if you do n't measure the demand how can you find what is required to run into it ‘ ( IPSEA, 2001 ) .A The lone path to acquiring a statement is through an appraisal ; the statement guarantees that the kid ‘s particular educational demands will be met.A There is besides the issue of the kid ‘s part ; they excessively have a part to do in their appraisal and the type of intercession programme that will profit them. The kids act ( 1989 ) and the Child Care Act ( 2006 ) supports the importance of listening to the kid which is besides echoed in the codification of pattern ( DfES ) , 2001. ) This is an of import consideration as it is frequently presumed that really immature kids and particularly those with particular demands are incapable of lending to discussion sing their instruction and acquisition, when in world they have valid sentiments and part to do which can inform parents, practicians and pattern. If kids are capable of lending to the procedure of appraisal so their positions should be valued and respected. Inequality is another facet that generates troubles for parents. It might be the instance that particular educational demands parents do non have the same intervention in comparing with the parents of normal mainstream pupils. One of the statements put frontward by those in favor of educational inclusion for all SEN kids is that such kids benefit from the societal life in a mainstream school and from the function theoretical accounts provided by typically developing kids ( Cigman, 2007 ) .There are more concerns about SEN kids than those who are considered normal, because of their forte, greater accent is placed on their educational development, as such parents with SEN kids are faced with more challenges than parents who have normal kids. Inclusion is besides a challenge faced by parents with particular kids. This is due to the fact that, particular kids do non work as the normal kids in the same schoolroom scene. There is the job of puting suited acquisition challenges, reacting to pupils ‘ diverse acquisition demands and get the better ofing possible barriers to larning and appraisal for persons and groups of students ( Farrell, 1997 ) .. In decision, it is apparent that the jobs and issues that parents encounter in determining educational support for their kids with SEN are many and continues to blossom as new diagnosing are made. It is really clear that the statutory appraisal which is of paramount importance is the really hard and disputing for parents. Many times parents are non given a opportunity to hold an input or do a positive part towards their kid.

Regulatory Bodies with Roles in Accounting Essay

IRS (Internal Revenue Service): It is the oldest in the United States regulatory body also called the internal revenue service or IRS. The main goal of IRS is to manage and implement the internal revenue law. Their responsibility is to help individuals to understand their tax obligations as well as to tax collection. SEC (Security and Exchange Commission): SEC also called the Securities and Exchange Commission. Their main objective is to protect investors, maintains the Integrity of the market and facilitates capital formation. The SEC also ensures that public companies follow the rules and regulations set by the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles or GAAP. Financial Accounting Foundation (FAF): Their responsibility is to establish and improve financial accounting, the administration and finances of the financial accounting of its standard-setting board, the financial accounting standards advisory council, the governmental accounting standards board or better known as GASB and their advisory council. Standards of non-government financial accounting and reporting like not-for-profit organizations are examined by FASB (Financial Accounting Standard Board). The GASB was formed to establish accepted accounting principles for state and local government. It was also established to examine the image of FASB on the state and local levels. FASAB (Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board): The FASAB was established in 1973 with the purpose to create and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting by nongovernmental entities that provides information to investors and other users of financial reports. The IASB (International Accounting Standards Board) is established to develop accounting standards through an international consultation process. This is done with representatives from countries all over the world to ensure the quality and feasibility of the financial reports. The PCAOB (Public Company Accounting Oversight Board) was created through the development of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to protect investors and their investments from the auditors of public traded companies. ACIPA (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants.): It is the last major regulatory body and its function is to create the standards for accounting and reporting. The standards are set by working with the FASB, assisting the FASB in enforcing the standards, and assisting them with their technical support.

National Curriculum for USA

Since the early 1980†³s, the issue of America†s faltering public school system has become a serious concern. The crisis in K-12 education is one of the biggest challenges facing the nation. Should there be set standardized tests given to students, and furthermore, should the United States adopt a national curriculum to keep up with the standards of other countries? Lynn Davey and Monty Neill suggest in their essay entitled, â€Å"The Case against a National Test† that, â€Å"U. S. olicymakers and the public have been deluged with proposals for national testing†, because the failure of the nation to adequately educate the students of America has an endless list of negative effects. The pathetically low results of American students through international test scores in the United States suggests that with the lack of proper education, generations of children are growing up without the basic, essential knowledge needed to be able to compete in the workplace. Lynn Davey also states, â€Å"But because the United States has no national system of achievement testing, we cannot validly compare students† performance across the nation†, in her essay entitled â€Å"The Case for a National Test†. Albert Shanker, who was president of the American Federation of Teachers claims in his essay entitled, â€Å"Are American Schools Too Easy? † that, â€Å"In countries where there is a national curriculum, fewer students are lost, and fewer teachers are lost because they know what the students who walk into their classroom have already studied†(122). This is a good point, but in the United States students and teachers are allowed to express their ideas creatively. Not all teachers in the U. S. teach in the same manner, and for this reason it would be hard to establish a national curriculum in which all teachers taught the same things at the same time. In his essay entitled, â€Å"The Tyranny of a National Curriculum† Marc Bernstein suggests that, â€Å"People that support a national testing program believe that too many students are failing to perform to their potential and that drastic steps need to be taken to improve their education†. But what American students need is school reform, not more testing. â€Å"More test scores will not magically produce educational improvement† (Davey & Neill). The people that support national testing should slow down for a moment and realize that testing is not the first step in learning, and start focusing on helping students in rural towns as opposed to larger cities. While there are real differences in the educational opportunities of poor and rich students, standardized tests exaggerate these differences by their biases and confuse lack of ability with lack of exposure† (Davey & Neill). â€Å"France and Japan, for instance, have strict national curriculums† (Davey). â€Å"Since a government agency decides educational content, if the agency makes a mistake, all schools are forced to go along with it. Such a risk can be avoided if the power to decide educational content is transferred to state and local governments† (Chapter 3). The American educational system operates in this way, leaving the choices for educational content up to the 50 state and local governments. This is beneficial to the United States because with such a diverse population it leaves the door open to adjust content if needed to suit certain schools in different towns and cities. Freedom is the trademark of America, and people of other countries because of this admire Americans. The American educational system tries to develop freedom and creativity among its students. It allows students to explore their ideas freely and teaches them to believe they can do anything they put their minds to. One can say that the American educational system is different from other countries educational systems. However, one cannot express the idea that the American system is worse than any other educational system. Sure the system does need some reform, but to drastically say we need a national curriculum, I think not.

To what extent has globalisation impacted upon local identities Essay

To what extent has globalisation impacted upon local identities Illustrate your argument with an original example - Essay Example It is the picture perfect integrated transfer of goods and people across the globe. It is the opening up of a country’s economy to the rest of the world and become a part of the global economy. It is the opening up of a country to foreign investment. It is the easy access of a country’s citizens to the rest of the world to travel for business and retreat. Globalization is based on the speculation that countries are not perfect in the manufacture of all goods, every country has some faults therefore it would be best if countries traded globally with each other and export their best products to a country which does not have a good quality of that product. For example, if a country is good at manufacturing something, it would be best for the company to export that good to a country which is not as efficient in the production of that good. Similarly, the latter country could export a particular good at whose manufacture they excel at and export it to the former country if i t lacks the manufacturing excellence of that product. It is a win-win situation for all the countries involved. Globalization also pertains to the subscription and application of the rules and procedures set by the World Trade Organization or WTO. WTO looks over the transactions between two trading countries. Globalization is a phenomenon that has gained speed and there won’t be an end to it, and it would benefit the countries greatly who are a part of it (Ritzer G., 2010). As globalization is a global phenomenon, it has affected every aspect of life and every element that is a part of the economy. It has greatly changed the style of living of people throughout the world. Those changes are both negative and positive. Since globalization is access to goods from around the globe, local manufacturers are in the constant fear that they would be out of business because people have easy access to imported goods and that the local manufacturers become less viable. For example, a far mer who lived off by selling his local products made at his small piece of land or the some area allotted to him by the landlord would be put out of place if the same product from a foreign manufacturer is available at a cheaper or a relatively cheaper price. Globalization not only replaces local products with foreign ones and allows easy access to foreign products; it also exposes international cultures to the rest of the world through music, art, literature, movies and poetry etc. This exposure to foreign cultures is a cause of constantly bringing about changes in the local culture, values and traditions. Although there is no general agreement on the affects of globalization on local identities, the general opinion is that exposure to foreign culture upon local identities will minimize the effect of the local identities and they might fade out (Anon 2013). The effect globalization had on the local identities is mostly taken into consideration as negative. Globalization has commonl y been represented as the obliteration of the local identities and culture. It can be correlated with the overpowering strength of some foreign cultures which can easily overshadow other cultures with their own. At the outburst of globalization, western consumer culture started to spread at an alarming speed. Critics are of the opinion that even if globalization has led to an increase and improvement in the material aspects of life, it certainly has diminished the cultural and spiritual aspects and they fear if this

AnalyticalResponse1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

AnalyticalResponse1 - Essay Example She is bored to death in her sisters house. When she finds work in a shoe factory, this too turns out to be drudgery. She does have enough money to buy some decent clothes as she has to pay four dollars a week as rent to her sister. Carrie begins to hate her co-workers and tries to get out of the boredom by spending most of her free time watching people as they pass on the street outside her sisters house. Carrie loses her job after an illness. It looks like she has to forget her big dreams of becoming rich and famous and return home. However she meets, George Drouet, a successful salesman, who she had earlier met in a train, by chance, a second time. Carrie leaves her sisters house and lives with George. In the meantime Carrie meets George Hurstwood, a friend of Drouet and a wealthy manager of a Chicago tavern. After a string of misunderstandings and errors in moral judgments, Carrie and Hurstwood move on to bigger and better lives in the big city of New York. Capitalism in America brought one of the biggest changes to American culture and that was the trend of â€Å"conspicuous consumption". Carrie in the novel represents consumerism and the American middle class. Carrie is shown as being "ambitious to gain in material things." (Dreiser,1900) And her personality reflects the American middle class growing desire for material things. Carrie wants to accumulate material things because she desires a higher status in society and she is aware that this will undoubtedly ensure her a higher status. Dreiser emphasizes this fact by giving us specific details about everything Carrie owns. Carrie has an imitation alligator-skin bag. She cannot afford a real alligator skin bag but still has an imitation one as she wants the status that goes with conspicuous consumption. As one reads the novel one can see the transition in Carries character while trying to adjust to the fast life of a big city. She suffers from what

Solar Energy - West Village, New York Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Solar Energy - West Village, New York - Essay Example A sensible estimate for the number of institutions in the area would be around 50 maximum, and population expansion would suggest that, although this seems high compared to the knowledge above, this number should be exaggerated when trying to ascertain how much power is needed for the area. It is reported that there are 21567 housing units in the area. This means that this information does not need to be estimated. However, the number should be rounded up to allow for any mistakes to avoid power shortages. The number suggested here is 24000, an approximately 10% markup on the official data. The number of businesses in the area is harder to ascertain. Census data suggests that this there were 2276 businesses in the area in 2008, although this is likely to fluctuate. Again allowing for any mistakes made in other areas, it is suggested that this be rounded up. The suggested number here is 2500, an approximately 10% markup from the official data. The total of each of these areas is 26550 units. This is the number of areas that need to be catered for in calculating the necessary power. However, it is important not to assume that each type of place will use a similar amount of energy, and this needs to be factored into any equations. Official and accurate data for the availability of local fuel in the area was difficult to find directly. Various data suggests that fuel for the area is derived almost exclusively from coal and gas resources, and is distributed to the residents and businesses by various different companies. The price and type of fuel available to you is dependent upon which street you live in within the zipcode. There are very few outages according to the information given by NYISO, which suggests that the actual availability of fuel for the area is very high and unlikely to run out. However, it is important to note that coal and gas are finite resources so the situation relating to the availability of local fuel needs to be

Medical Law Problem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Medical Law Problem - Essay Example The doctor, as a responsible professional, should have thoroughly examined the injured Charles. However, he failed to do so. Based on Charles’ statement regarding pain in his leg, the doctor had proceeded to treat him for that particular injury. Since Charles was a child; the doctor should have exercised greater care and examined him for other injuries. As per the decision in the Wood’s case, failure to examine the patient properly was equivalent to the denial of crucial treatment. Similarly, the doctor’s reliance on Charles’ words regarding the injuries sustained by the latter depicts gross negligence; because, Dr. Green as a skilled professional should have taken decisions regarding treatment, after making an independent assessment of the patient’s condition. Dr. Green had failed to perform a thorough physical examination of Charles, prior to treating him. The deformity caused to Charles is on account of Dr. Green’s clinical negligence. Charles would not have been forced to countenance such adversity if Dr. Green had exhibited greater caution while diagnosing and treating him. The court's approach towards clinical negligence can be evaluated by examining the various tests employed by them while deciding such cases. The Bolam test for medical negligence was introduced with Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee. In this case, it was decided by the House of Lords that the principle of the standard of care was not violated, as long as a responsible body of similar professionals corroborated the medical practice that resulted in damage.

Major disadvantages of pizza hut interactive table Essay

Major disadvantages of pizza hut interactive table - Essay Example Second, the platform is vulnerable to uncertainties of technology. Software bugs and failures during a busy session will bring a restaurant to stand still. This will be especially the case if customers get overly used to the platform. It is worth noting that the platform is yet to be tested severely and such software bugs and failures are a possibility. The way to overcome this challenge is through pilot testing the platform before rolling it out fully. Thirdly, the system like any other electronic system is vulnerable to malicious hacking. Malicious hackers may hack the platform and modify customer order contents. This will likely cause uproar in a restaurant as customers get served with what they did not actually order. In order to overcome this challenge, an alternative method should be readily available in case of a failure of the platform. Zolfagharifard, Ellie. Pizza Hut reveals interactive table concept that lets you design your perfect pie. Daily Mail, 4 March, 2014. Web. April 28, 2015.

Micro Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Micro Economics - Assignment Example It is exploitative in nature and it takes unfair advantage of the fact that there are a few firms operating in the market and consumers must turn to them to buy their service (Schiller, Hill, & Wall, 2013). In order to protect the consumers from such exploitative practices and not let the companies take advantage of the consumers’ lack of options, government regulators should intervene and oversee that no collusion takes place. Collusion remains to be a problem in today’s economy as well. Recently, a collusive agreement between top Silicon Valley executives took place whereby they agreed to not hire away valuable employees from each other’s companies (Fung, 2014). Although this collusion was not in the form of controlling prices or output levels, it still shows the exploitative nature of collusion and the harm is does to the people. I agree with statement 1 since it adequately describes the need for free and open markets where the supply and demand equilibrium is not disturbed. Collusion upsets this equilibrium and harms the consumers with artificially high product prices and the companies themselves with its inefficient resource allocation. Statement 2 is also similar in nature and describes how collusion can upset the way market forces are working. In an Oligopoly, collusion is easier and consumers are at a disadvantage. To ensure that the market remains corruption free and exploitation does not take place, it is necessary to let the market forces work to achieve equilibrium rather than setting up an artificial price for the selfish interests of the companies. Fung, B. (2014, April 23). What the Apple wage collusion case says about Silicon Valley’s labor economy. Retrieved from Washington Post:

Understanding Challenges In The Third Sector Essay

Understanding Challenges In The Third Sector - Essay Example Moreover, I have learnt that people suffering from learning disabilities can be recuperated with the constant compassionate support and care (St Elizabeth's Centre, 2013). Social enterprises are organisations that conduct business, bearing the primary objective to maintain the betterment of the societies through education, social activity and financial aid which assist in generating income for the organisation (Social Enterprise Alliance, 2013). The enterprises are also liable for common good to provide safety and security along with performing economic activity (Economic and Social Research Council, 2013). Based on this conception, the essay intends to provide a reflective assessment based on the experiences obtained in St Elizabeth's Centre, on the concepts and models of third sector organisations and challenges faced by the organisations in the modern day context. It also provides certain pertinent understanding regarding the ways to deal with the challenges. Concept, Theories and Models Resources and Impact The successful orientation of an organisation focuses on the availability of adequate resources within the workplace premises. It can be stated that mobilisation of the resources is significant in building third sector organisations such as St Elizabeth's Centre, which generally indicates a charitable organisation. Resources assist in maintaining time and work efficiency in the charitable organisation, which enables them to build and foster effective work culture. Moreover, with adequate supply of resources, it positively influences the process of work performed in the organisation. This would in turn facilitate in solving the problems of... Understanding Challenges In The Third Sector It can also be stated that third sector organisations focus on facet of common good irrespective of diverse work culture as well as cohesion of activities. The sector also comprises practical logic as well as different types of social entities. Third Sector Research Centre is considered to be one of the core components of the Civil Society Almanac working for over for 10 years with the collaboration of National Council for Voluntary Organisations. Third Sector Research Centre focuses on the charitable organisations related to civil society. It can be stated that the TSRC plays an important role in providing charitable needs to the people in the communities of the United Kingdom. TSRC receives financial support from Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), which is the office for the Civil Society and Barrow Cadbury Trust. TSRC as a part of the civil society argues that organisations in every sector depend on civil support that necessitates the commitment of individuals through sh aring of financial aid and time in accordance with the organisations. These organisations provide support with the assistance of required finance, management support, competent and supportive human resources as well as governmental influence for maintaining effective functioning in the society. Thus, third sector organisations focus on ascertaining the common good through their comprehensive efforts towards societal development.

Worldview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Worldview - Essay Example To be a Baptist, to me, means that a person can be â€Å"different† from the others yet still be part of the same collective. This is a beautiful and inclusive message, and that is why I would describe my worldview as diverse and inclusive. The core beliefs of Baptism include that there is only one God, who manifests Himself in three persons: the Father (God in Heaven), the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Moreover, there is belief in the birth of Jesus Christ from a virgin mother, Mary. Jesus Christ performed many miracles during his lifetime, including raising the dead, and then died, was buried, and finally resurrected. Also, we believe that human beings are in need of salvation, without which they are doomed; this salvation is provided to us by the very death, burial and resurrection of Christ. It is the grace of God, due to which He has given us humans the unearned favor of eternal salvation by sending his Son to earth and dying on a cross for our sins. Baptists a lso believe that the world will end, and Jesus would return to us and the dead will be raised and everyone be judged by Him. Finally, we believe that the Message of God needs to be spread throughout the world, so that more people can be brought within the fold and experience the Grace of God. I know that my beliefs are true, because the Bible speaks out to me. I have personally experienced the grace and miracles of Jesus Christ in my life. When a very close cousin of mine was diagnosed with cancer, and it was clear that the cancer had spread throughout her body, the doctors told her that there was no treatment available for her, and the best all of us could do was to keep her comfortable at home. I turned to Jesus Christ in my time of need and He spoke out to me and answered my prayers through a miracle: my cousin not only survived, but her cancer is in complete remission. My worldview is accurate because it is clear by looking around that God exists, also, He is just and kind and i t was told in the Bible many years ago. What is more, the Bible is a direct account of what God wanted people to do, and its message is still true today. Even after 2,000 years, we can still derive our morality from the Bible and that is clear proof of its Divine Origins. It is very clear when one observes these facts that my worldview is accurate and believable. Part 2 Just like Baptists, Catholics are a denomination of Christians who believe in the unity of the God and the Holy Trinity. There are many more similarities between the two groups. The Catholics also believe in the virgin birth of Jesus Christ. Like the Baptists, the Catholics believe in the miracles of Jesus Christ, including healing the leper and raising Lazarus; his crucifixion and subsequent death; his burial; and his resurrection after three days. Moreover, they also believe in the infinite Mercy and Grace of God, which God showed by sending his only son to die for humans for their salvation. There are many similar ities in the ethics of the two groups as well; there is an emphasis on moral uprightness in both the groups, but, both believe, that there is no salvation for us except through Jesus Christ and his sacrifice for us. There are, however, many differences between the two, I will mention two big differences here. Firstly, there is no central authority for Baptists. Unlike the Catholics who have the papacy, whereby a group of priests elect a Pope, the Bishop of Rome, who is the considered to be a successor of Saint Peter, the Baptists do not have a central authority that ensures that beliefs are kept identical throughout the various Churches of the denomination. For Catholics, the pope gets to decide the policies

Preschool Observation Essay Example for Free

Preschool Observation Essay There is growth and development in a child if he or she shows the necessary skills or milestones for his or her age. This essay is a case study of a pre-school child. An observation was done to determine whether the child has matured intellectually, emotionally and physically with her age. The child, who is two years and nine months old, was observed while she was in her play room with her mother one hour before her bed time. Below is an account of the observation. The child is kneeling on the floor and is opening a box of toys. She places blocks and cubes on the floor. Her mother joins to play with her. When her mother asks her what she is taking out of the box, she answers, â€Å"Toys. † After emptying the box, she chooses blocks with colors yellow, orange and red and she starts to form objects out of it. First, she lines up the longer orange blocks. Then, she stacks these blocks together by putting shorter blocks which are colored yellow and red on top of the orange blocks. The resulting object is like a train. Afterwards, she disassembles it and creates another object which looks like a phone and she pretends to talk to someone else with it. Next, she takes the red and orange blocks and forms a square using three longer blocks supported by one longer block and two shorter blocks underneath. The shape is not recognized by her mother so she asks her, to which she replies â€Å"toys. † Then she tries to tell a story as she makes gestures and actions and she tries to explain but only the words â€Å"she,† â€Å"ride,† and â€Å"ice cream† are intelligible. After explaining, she says, â€Å"Look at this†¦ These are toys†¦ Place this here† as she places a cube on top of the object. After a few minutes, a cat’s cry is heard from another room. She recognizes it and says â€Å"Cat†¦ Cat meow. † A little later, she gets a cloth and wipes her nose. Her mother asks what is wrong and she says, â€Å"Mommy, nose† to probably mean that she has a running nose. After a while, she counts from one to ten the blocks she formed into an object. Then, her mother asks her the color of a block and she answers â€Å"red† but she cannot recognize the colors pink and blue when she was asked. After that, her mother asks how old she is and she quickly answers â€Å"Two† and shows her two fingers. By and by, she sees a picture book, which is an atlas for children, on the shelf. She points at it and articulates â€Å"Book†¦ Read book. † Her mother gives her the book. She starts to turn the pages one by one and she recognizes pictures of a cow, earth, water, stars, bird, fish, and a dog especially when her mother points out a picture and asks her the names for those pictures. Her mother also teaches her the names of a few of the pictures such as a whale and a bear. She is quick to remember the image of a bear because when she was near the end of the book, she suddenly asks, â€Å"Where bear? † and she turns back the pages of the book to find it. She exclaims, â€Å"It’s here! † when she found it. Her mother tries to help her turn the pages of the book but she exclaims, â€Å"Wait! † and continues to turn the pages on her own. There was a time when she mentions the word â€Å"heavy† referring to the heavy pages of the book. She pretends to read the words written on paper and looks at the pictures most of the time. Furthermore, she turns back to the pages she has already seen again and again. She also recognizes pictures of babies because when her mother asked her what can be seen on the page with baby pictures, she responds, â€Å"Baby. † Her mother then asks her how many babies there are and she accurately counts from one to three. Since it was almost her bedtime, her mother tells her to go to sleep, she says, â€Å"Wait. No sleep† but yawns. Then, she stands up, says â€Å"Me sleep,† goes to the door of her bedroom and opens it. Once inside the bedroom, her mother undresses her and dresses her up for sleeping. While dressing up, she tries to help by lifting her arms to fit to the sleeves of the shirt and lifting her legs to put on the pajamas. After that she says, â€Å"Mommy, milk. † So, her mother gets her milk, gives it to her and she drinks it from a cup. Based on the observation, the child displays the common developmental milestones of a two to three-year old preschool in terms of her cognitive, socio-emotional and motor skills. These are enumerated below: Primarily, the child exhibits the following cognitive skills of most two-year old children: (1) uses more than 100 words; (2) likes to take things apart; (3) uses 2 to 3 word sentences; (4) refers to self as â€Å"me†; (5) verbalizes desires; (6) enjoys looking at one book over and over; (7) points to body parts (Powell Smith); (8) recognizes familiar pictures; and (9) asks for items by name (Developmental Checklist). Moreover, she demonstrates what other three-year children can do such as: (1) naming pictures of a book; (2) naming at least one color; and (3) knowing and telling her age (Goodbye Babyhood). Aside from these skills, it is observed that she can recognize animal sounds and she can already count from numbers one to ten. Furthermore, the child demonstrates the following socio-emotional skills: (1) shows awareness of parental approval; (2) displays independence to do things on her own; and (3) likes to imitate adult activities such as talking on the phone (Miss Independent). In addition to this, she can already perform motor skills such as: (1) opening a box; (2) building or stacking up small blocks; (3) using toys appropriately; (4) using a cup well; (4) dresses up with help (Miss Independent); and (5) turning pages of a book two to three at a time (Developmental Checklist). In conclusion, the preschool child who has been observed is on the right track in the growth milestones children of her age range develop. She has progressed in her cognitive, socio-emotional and motor skills as a two-year old child. Works Cited â€Å"Developmental Checklist for Infants and Toddlers. † Jacksonville Medicine. March 2000. University of Florida, Jacksonville Early Intervention Program for Infants and Toddlers. 11 March 2009. http://www. dcmsonline. org/jax-medicine/2000journals/march2000/EIPchecklist. htm â€Å"Goodbye Babyhood, Hello Childhood. † Kids Growth. 8 May 2007. Maternal and Child Health Bureau U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. 3 April 2009. http://www. kidsgrowth.com/resources/articledetail. cfm? id=321 â€Å"Miss Independent. † Kids Growth. 8 May 2007. Maternal and Child Health Bureau U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. 3 April 2009. http://www. kidsgrowth. com/resources/articledetail. cfm? id=320 Powell, J. and Smith, Charles. â€Å"Developmental milestones: A guide for parents the 2nd year. † National Network for Child Care. (1994). Kansas State University Cooperative Extension. 11 March 2009. http://www. nncc. org/Child. Dev/mile2. html

Communication Satellites And Computer Networks

Communication Satellites And Computer Networks A communication satellite which is sometimes abbreviated to COMSAT is an artificial satellite to engage in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communication satellites use different orbits including geostationary orbits, Molina orbits, other elliptical orbits and low earth orbits. They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand held terminals and for TV and radio broadcasting, for which application of other technologies such as cable is impractical or impossible. HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION SATELLTES The first artificial satellite was the soviet sputnik 1, launched on October 4, 1957, and equipped with an onboard radio transmitter that worked on two frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz The first American satellite to relay communication was project score in 1958, which used a tape recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used to send messages like greetings etc. After that NASA launched an Echo satellite in 1960. Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications satellite. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION IN COMPUTER NETWORKS. A multi-node, satellite communication system employing a modified broadcast system is disclosed for used with distributed computer networks. The system involves a plurality of network nodes (computer systems) each capable of transmitting to any other node at a single unique frequency, but capable of receiving from all other nodes simultaneously. Each node in the n-node network comprises a single transmitter with up to n-1 receivers, with each node capable of arbitrating a plurality of requests for transmission access. The invention encompasses a method for communicating digital information in a network of geographical distributed computers. GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based observer. In 1945, Arthur C. Clarke describes a complete communication system that used manned geostationary satellites, including the orbits, solar panels, radio frequencies and launch procedures. But it was failed, because these satellites were impractical due to the impossibility of putting power-hungry, fragile, vacuum tube amplifiers into orbit. The first communication satellite, Telstar was launched in July 1962. Then communication Satellites have become a multibillion dollar business and the only aspect of outer space that has become highly portable. These high-flying satellites are called GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) satellites. Geostationary satellites space much closer than 2 degrees in the 360-degree equatorial plane, to avoid interference. With a space of 2 degrees, there can only be 360/2 =180 of these satellites in the sky at ones. However, each transponder can use multiple frequ encies and polarization to increase the available bandwidth. Modern satellite was weighing up 4000kg and consuming several kilowatts of electric power produced by the solar panels. ITU has allocated certain frequency bands to satellite users. The main bands are listed as C band was the first to be designated for commercial satellite traffic and the upper case one for uplink traffic. To allow traffic to go both ways at the same time, two channels is required, one going each way. These bands are overcrowded because they are also used by the common carriers for terrestrial microwave links. The L and S bands were added by international agreement in 2000. Band Downlink Uplink Bandwidth Problems L 1.5GHZ 1.6GHZ 15MHZ Low bandwidth; crowded S 1.9GHZ 2.2GHZ 70MHZ Low bandwidth; crowded C 4.0GHZ 6.0GHZ 500MHZ Terrestrial interference Ku 11GHZ 14GHZ 500MHZ Rain Ka 20GHZ 30GHZ 3500MHZ Rain, equipment cost The next highest band available to commercial telecommunication carriers is the Ku band. Bandwidth allocated in the Ka band for commercial traffic, but the equipment needed to use it is still expensive. A modern satellite has around 40 transponders, each with an 80-MHZ band width. The first geostationary satellites had a single beam that illuminated about 1/3 of the earthà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s surface called footprint. MEDIUM-EARTH ORBIT SATELLITES MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites tracked as move through the sky. These are lower than GEOs; they have smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them. LOW-EARTH ORBIT LEO (LOW EARTH ORBIT) satellite due to their rapid motion, large numbers of them is needed for a complete system. In this section we will examine, two aimed at voice communication and one aimed at internet service. LEO earth satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites. A grou8p of satellites working in concert is a Satellite constellation. GLOBAL STAR An iridium alternative design is global star. It based on 48 LEO satellites. But it uses a different switching scheme than that of iridium. Global star uses a traditional bent-pipe design. The call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station at Santaà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s Workshop. The call is routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the cal lee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection. The advantage of global star scheme is that it puts much of the complexity on the ground, where it is easier to manage. MOLNIYA ORBIT The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprints moves only slightly. Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation for eight hours every second revolution. The Molniya satellites are typically used for telephony and TV services over Russia. HOW SATELLITE COMMUNICATION WORKS? The concept of satellite based network is to transmit and receive signal from ground stations. The purpose of satellite communication is to use it for video transmission and sharing. In simple words a satellite is a device which revolves around the earth either for collecting useful information or for helping transfer of information. HOW DO SATELLITES COMMUNICATE? Satellites communicate through a complex system of telemetry that connects and transmits signals between satellites and earth-bound stations. This system begins with telemetry, tracking and command (TTC) subsystem which tracks and directs signals. TTC produces signal that are directly commensurable to the quantity that is being measured, encoding and transmitting these signal to distant stations on earth. APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES The applications of communication satellites are, Telephone Satellite Television Fixed Service Satellite Direct Broadcast satellites Satellite radio Mobile satellite technologies Amateur radio Satellite internet Military uses Navigation TELEPHONE The first application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony. The public switched telephone network relays telephone calls from landline telephones to an earth station where they are transmitted to geostationary satellite. SATELLITE TELEVISION The satellite television is relatively few signals of large band width to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats. Two satellite types are used for North American Television and radio that are Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS). DIRECT BROADCAST SATELLITE It is a communication satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes. It is usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in a diameter. SATELLITE RADIO A Satellite radio offers audio services in some countries, mostly in United States. Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere. A Satellite radio or subscription radio(SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals. MOBILE SATELLITE TECHNOLOGIES Initially available for broadcast to stationary TV receivers. Some manufactures have introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television. Such mobile DBS antennas are used by jet-blue Airways for Direct TV, which passengers can view on board on LCD screens mounted in the seats. CONCLUSION Communication satellite has really paved way for many technologies to emerge and its advance in technology radically reduces the cost of deploying a satellite. Users of satellite systems will benefit from new service options and stability in terms current satellites and their replacement. It is very useful to economics of constructing and operating communication satellites. To conclude, I was really benefited by getting more knowledge by doing this assignment by researching on Communication satellite.

Molecular Genetics of Cancer

Molecular Genetics of Cancer INTRODUCTION It has been established that cancer is a genetic disease, characterized by interplay of mutant form of the oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes leading to the uncontrolled growth and spread of cancer cells. While some of the mutant genes may be inherited, others occur in the somatic cells of the individuals, which can divide and form tumour. Completion of Human Genome Sequencing Project has generated a wealth of new information about the mutations that trigger a cell to become cancerous. It has now been possible to understand to great extent the relationship between genes and cancer, and how mutations, chromosomal changes, viruses and environmental agents play a role in the development of cancer. In this chapter current understanding of the nature and cause of cancer has been presented. CELL CYCLE AND CANCER During mitotic cell division, in every cell, all chromosomes must duplicate faithfully and a copy of the each has to be distributed to progeny cells. Progression through the cell cycle is controlled by the activities of many genes. At different stages in the cell cycle there exist control points (G1, G2, S, and M stages) at which the cell cycle is arrested if there is damage to the genome or cell-cycle machinery. Such mechanism helps to repair the damage or destroy the cell. Through this process it is possible to prevent the possibility of dividing a defective cell and from becoming cancerous. Proteins and enzymes called cyclines and cycline-dependent kinases (Cdks) respectively are the key components that are involved in the regulation of events in the checkpoints. At the G1-to-S checkpoint, two different G1 cycline/Cdks complex forms, resulting in activation of the kinase. The kinase catalyzes a series of phosphorylations (addition of phosphate group) of cell-cycle control proteins, affecting the functions of those proteins and leading to translation into the S phase. Similarly, at the G2-to-M checkpoint, a G2 cycline binds to a Cdk to form a complex. Phosphorylation of the Cdk by another kinase keeps the Cdk inactive. Removal of a phosphate group from Cdk by a phosphataes enzyme activates the Cdk. Thereafter, the cell moves from S to M phase, due to phosphorylation of proteins by Cdk. Regulation of Cell Division in Normal Cells Division of normal cells is regulated by both extracellular and cellular molecules that operate in a complicated signal system. Steroids and hormones made in other tissues are extracellular molecules, which influence the growth and division of some other tissues. These extracellular molecular are known as growth factors, which bind to specific receptors on their target cells. The receptors are proteins that span the plasma membrane, and the growth factor binds to the part of the receptor which lies outside of the cell. The signal is then transmitted to an intracellular part through the membrane-embedded part of the receptor. Thereafter, the signal is relayed through a series of proteins, which ultimately activate nuclear genes involved in stimulation and division of cells through transcription factors (Fig 13.1a). In the opposite direction, inhibition of cell growth and division is regulated by growth-inhibiting factors (Fig 13.1b). The process which involves either growth-stimulator y or growth-inhibitory signal after binding of the extracellular factor to the receptors is called signal transduction, and the proteins involved in such process are called signal transducers. Cell division in normal cells takes place only when there exist balance between stimulatory and inhibitory signals from outside the cells. Any mutation either in the stimulatory or inhibitory genes or genes encoding cell surface receptors involved in cell cycle control may cause imbalance and loss of control of cell division. CANCERS ARE GENETIC DISEASE Clinically, cancer is defined as a large number of complex diseases that behave differently depending on the cell types from which they originate. However, at the molecular level, all cancers exhibit common characteristics, and thus they can be grouped as a family. All cancer cells share two fundamental properties: unregulated cell proliferation, characterized by abnormal growth and division, and metastasis, a process that allow cancer cells to spread and invade other parts of the body. When a cell loses its genetic control over its growth and division, it may give rise to a benign tumour, a multicellular mass. Such tumours may cause no serious harm and can often be removed by surgery. However, if cells of the tumour also acquire the ability to break loose, enter the blood stream, invade other cells, they may induce formation of secondary tumours elsewhere in the body. Such tumours are called malignant, which are difficult to treat and may become life threatening. A benign tumour may become malignant through multiple steps and genetic mutations. Mutations in three kinds of genes can leads to cancer. These are proto-oncogenes, tumour suppressor genes and mutator genes. Mutant proto-oncogenes are called oncogenes, are usually more active than normal cells. The product of oncogenes stimulates cell proliferation. The normal tumour suppressor genes inhibit cell proliferation, while the mutants found in tumour cells have lost their inhibitory function. The normal mutator genes are required to ensure fidelity of replication and maintenance of genome integrity, while mutant mutator genes in cancer cells make the cells prone to accumulate mutational errors. RETROVIRUS AND ONCOGENES Most cancer causing animal viruses are RNA viruses known as retroviruses, and the oncogenes carried by RNA tumour viruses are altered forms of normal animal host cell genes. Infection with retroviruses can transform normal host cells to the neoplastic state, and such cells proliferate in an uncontrolled manner to produce tumour. Examples of retroviruses include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), mouse mammary tumour virus, felin leukemia virus, and Rous sarcoma virus. A typical retrovirus particle has a protein core, which often is icosahedral in shape, with two copies of plus-sense (means directly translatable) single stranded RNA molecule (7kb and 10 kb). The core is surrounded by an envelope with virus-encoded glycoproteins inserted into it (Fig 13.2). The virus enters the host cell by interacting with the host cell surface receptor through its glycoproteins present in the envelope. To understand how retroviruses cause cancer in animals, it is essential to know their life cycle. Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) is one of the earliest retrovirus studied on induction of cancer. When a retrovirus like RSV infect a cell, the RNA genome is released from the viral particle, and a double stranded DNA copy of the genome is made by reverse transcriptase (Fig 13.3). This is known as proviral DNA. The proviral DNA then enters the nucleus of the infected cell, and integrates into the host chromosome at random locations. The integrated DNA copy is called provirus. At the left end of all retroviral RNA genomes consists of the sequence R and U5, and U3 and R at the right end. Powerful enhancer and promoter elements are located in the U5 and U3 sequences (Fig 13.3). During proviral DNA synthesis by reverse transcriptase, the end sequences are duplicated to produce long terminal repeats of U3-R-U5 (LTRs in Fig 13.3), which contain many of the transcription regulatory signals for the vir al sequence. The two ends of the proviral DNA are ligated to produce a circle, a double stranded molecule in which the two LTRs are next to each other. Staggered nicks are made in both viral and cellular DNAs, and integration of the viral DNA begins. The viral DNA ends joined through recombination. Integration occurs at this point, and single stranded gaps are ligated. The integration of retrovirus proviral DNA results in a duplication of DNA at the target site, producing short, direct repeats in the host cell DNA flanking the provirus. The proviral DNA is transcribed by host RNA polymerase II, after integration into the host DNA. The retroviruses have three protein- coding genes for the virus life cycle: gag, pol, and env (Fig 13.3). The gag gene encodes a precursor protein that is cleaved to produce virus particle protein. The pol gene encodes a precursor protein which produces an enzyme called reverse transcriptase, required for the integration of the proviral DNA into the host chromosome. The env gene encodes the precursor to the envelop glycoprotein. The progeny virus particles are produced when transcription products of the entire integrated viral DNA are packed into new viral particles. The new virus particles are released and can infect new host cells. A retrovirus may induce cancer in the host cells through two different ways. First, the proviral DNA may integrate by chance near one of the cell’s normal proto-oncogenes. The strong enhancers and promoters in the provirus then stimulate transcription of proto-oncogenes present in the host cell at high levels or at inappropriate timing. This leads to stimulation of host-cell proliferation. Second, a retrovirus may pick-up a copy of a host proto-oncogene and integrates it into its genome (Fig 13.4). The integrated oncogene may mutate during the process of transfer into the virus, or it may be expressed at abnormal levels, due to action of the viral promoters. Retroviruses that carry these viral oncogenes can infect and transform normal cells into tumour cells. Different oncogenic retroviruses carry different oncogenes. Most oncogenic retroviruses cannot replicate as they do not have a full set of life-cycle genes. Thus they cannot change growth properties of the host cells. They are called nononcogenic retroviruses. HIV-1 is a nononcogenic retrovirus. On the contrary, RSV is an oncogenic retrovirus as it can replicate its oncogenes and can affect the growth and division of the infected host cells. Viral oncogenes, genetically called v-oncs are responsible for many different cancers. The v-oncs of RSV is called v-src. Unlike RNA tumour viruses, DNA tumour viruses do not carry oncogenes. Their mechanism for transforming cells is completely different. They transform normal cells to cancerous state through the action of genes present in the viral chromosome. DNA tumour viruses are found in five major families of DNA viruses which include: papovaviruses, pox viruses, hepatitis B viruses, herpes viruses and adenoviruses. After infection, the DNA tumour viruses produce a viral protein that activates DNA replication in the host cell. Then, utilizing host proteins, the viral genome is replicated and transformed. After producing large number of progeny viruses, they lyses the host cell and the viruses thus released can infect other cell. Rarely, the viral genome instead of replicating gets integrated into the host genome. Thereafter if the viral protein that activates DNA replication of the host cell is synthesized, this will lead to division and proliferation of the host cell converting normal cell to cancerous state. Basically, the cells move from G0 phase to the S phase of the cell cycle. The DNA viruses which induces cancers are papillomaviruses (HPV 16 and 18), human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV-1), hepatitis B virus, human herpesvirus 8, and epstein-barr virus. Some of these viruses cause benign tumours such as skin and venereal warts in humans. Transformation is caused by the key viral genes, E6 and E7, which encode proteins that activate progression through the cell cycle. However, in most of the cases, virus infection alone is not sufficient to trigger human cancers. Other factors like DNA damage, accumulation of mutants in cell’s oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes, are required to induce cancer in multiple pathways. Some transducing retroviruses, their viral oncogenes, viral protein and type of cancer induced is presented in Table 13.1. CANCER AND GENOME STABILITY Cancer cells are characterized by the presence of chromosomal translocations, deletions, aneuploidy, and DNA amplification. Cultured cancer cells also show similar genomic instabilities. Study of the specific chromosomal defects can be used to diagnose the type and stage of the cancer. For example, chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) gene C-ABL from chromosome 9 is translocated to the chromosome 22 in the region of gene BCR. The fused ABL-BCR gene encodes for a chimeric ABL-BCR protein, which produces an abnormal signal transduction molecule that stimulates the CML cells to proliferate. The normal ABL protein (protein kinase) acts within signal transduction pathway, transferring growth factor signals from the external environment to the nucleus, thereby control cell division. Defect in the DNA repair genes can also induce cancer. For example, Xenoderma pigmentosum (XP), a disease in which the skin becomes extremely sensitive to UV light and other carcinogens. Patients with XP often develop skin cancer. Cells of XP are defective in nucleotide excision repair, with mutations appearing in any one of the seven genes whose products are required to carry out DNA repair. Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) is also caused by mutations in genes controlling DNA repair. Patients affected by HNPCC have an increased risk of developing colon, ovary, uterine, and kidney cancers. At least eight genes are associated with HNPCC, and four of these genes (MSH2, MHS6, MLH1, and MLH3) control DNA mismatch repair. Mutations in any one of these genes can lead to development of cancer. EPIGENETICS AND CANCER Epigenetics includes those factors that affect heritable gene expression but do not alter the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Examples of epigenic modifications are DNA methylation, acetylation and phosphorylation of histones etc. Modifications caused through these processes can be inherited and affect gene expression. X-chromosome inactivation, heterochromatin gene expression are such examples. Cancer cells contain major alterations in DNA methylation. In general, there is much less DNA methylation in cancer cells compared to normal cells. On the other hand promoters of some genes are highly methylated in cancer cells. Apparently these changes lead to the release of transcription repression over the bulk of genes that would otherwise remain silent, while at the same time repressing transcription of genes that would normally regulate functions such as DNA repair, cell cycle, and cellular differentiation. The genes MLH1 and BRCA1, involved in DNA repair mechanism, are transcriptionally si lenced by hypermethylation in many cancer cells. Methylation profiles can be used to diagnose types of tumours and their possible course of development. It has also been observed that histones are also modified in the cancer cells. These modifications are due to mutations in the genes that encode histone acetylases, deacetylases, methyltransferases, and demethylases. Since the epigenetic modifications are reversible, epigenetic- based therapies may be useful for cancer treatments. APOPTOSIS AND CANCER If a normal cell encounters defective processing in DNA replication, DNA repair or chromosome assembly, they do not allowed to continue through the cell cycle, till the conditions are corrected and thereby reduces the chances of accumulation of defective cells. In case the damage of the DNA is irreparable, the cell may go through a second line of defence called programmed cell death or apoptosis. Apoptosis is controlled genetically, and is an inherent process to eliminate certain cells that are not required for by the final adult organism. In this process, the nuclear DNA becomes fragmented, internal cellular structures are disrupted, and cell dissolves into small spherical (apoptotic) bodies. Thereafter, these bodies are engulfed by the phagocytic cells of the immune system. The products of the genes Bcl2 and BAC can trigger or prevent apoptosis. In the cancer cells these genes are mutated, and as a result normal checkpoints in the cell cycle are inactivated. Such cells remain defec tive and cannot undergo apoptosis. TUMOUR SUPRESSOR GENES Henry Harris in late 1960’s observed that some cell lines, derived from the somatic hybrid of normal rodent cells and cancer cells, did not form tumours, instead established a normal growth pattern. He speculated that products of some genes present in the normal cells had the ability to suppress the uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells. These genes are called tumour suppressor genes. Inactivation of tumour suppressor genes has been linked to the development of a wide variety of human cancer, including colon, lung and breast cancers. With the development of positional cloning technique, it has become possible to isolate tumour suppressor genes. In this technique, variations in the genetic characters present in the cancer cells and/or in cells of patients with inherited cancer predisposition are identified. Existence of variations indicate occurrence of mutations and help to study such mutations through cloning. Through this technique several tumour suppressor genes are identified in humans (Table 13.2). The p53 Tumour-Suppressor Gene In human cancer cells p53 is the most frequently mutated gene. The nuclear protein encodes by the gene p53 acts as a transcription factor. It can stimulate transcription or repress more than 50 different genes. Although the p53 protein is continuously synthesized, it is rapidly degraded and thus is present in low levels. When p53 protein binds to another protein called Mdm2, it induces degradation and sequesters the transcriptional activation domain of p53. It also prevents conversion of inactive p53 protein to active form. In case Mdm2 protein gets dissociated from p53 protein then rapid increase in the activated p53 protein takes place at nuclear level. Such dissociation is induced due to creation of dsDNA breaks, chemical damage in DNA and presence of DNA-repair intermediates. Increase in the level of p53 protein leads to increased protein phosphorylation, acetylation, and other post translational modifications. The products of p53 gene control the movement of the normal cells through different phases of the cell cycle. Activated p53 proteins can: i) stimulate transcription of p21 protein (which arrests progression from G1-S checkpoint of mitotic cycle), ii) regulate gene expression that retard replication of DNA (this helps in repair of the damaged DNA before replication), and iii) block damaged cells (DNA damage occurred during S phase) from progression from G2 to M checkpoint by regulating expression of other genes.

Why Euthanasia? Why Doctor-Assisted Suicide? Why Now? :: Euthanasia Physician Assisted Suicide

Why Euthanasia? Why Now?      Ã‚   Americans wonder why the big push for legalizing euthanasia and assisted suicide. After thousands of years of considering such practices sinful and illegal, why the vocal effort at changing policy? This paper will look closely at how and why the new pro-euthanasia/assisted suicide attitude is sweeping around the world.    The 89 year old woman died of dehydration starvation after six days without food and fluids, despite evidence that she had repeatedly asked for water. A scene from a drought-stricken Third World country or Nazi Germany? No. Ella Bathurst died October 28, 1984 at a prestigious Midwestem hospital in the USA. Mrs. Bathurst had been living alone until she fell and fractured her hip. She was treated at the hospital and then she was transferred to a nursing home. When she developed problems in swallowing, she was transferred back to the hospital for rehydration therapy. After three days, at the insistence of Mrs. Bathurst's daughter, the IV was discontinued and food and fluids were withheld. According to hospital records, Mrs. Bathurst was "alert and responsive" most of the time, yet she was not consulted regarding the withdrawal of food and water. (Gula)    Similar cases are occurring more frequently as a traditional medical standard - the presumption to treat -- is being eroded. Under common law, competent patients are able to refuse treatment, provided the decision is reasonable and based on sufficient information for informed consent. In the case of an incompetent or comatose patient, the usual method of determining treatment was for the physicians involved in the case to discuss treatment options with the family of the patient. It was presumed that the patient would want beneficial treatment and would not want to die of dehydration and starvation. Likewise, it was presumed that the family would want the best care for the patient. Physicians themselves swore to the Hippocratic Oath: "First, do no harm."    Unfortunately, this presumption in favor of treatment is being eroded in our society. Generally, through five means: the medical profession, pro-euthanasia organizations, state legislation, court opinions, and the media: 1. As an indication of where segments of the medical profession are heading, in March 1986 the judicial council of the American Medical Association (AMA) ruled that it is ethical for physicians to withhold "all means of life-prolonging treatment" from people in "irreversible" comas even if death is not imminent. Why Euthanasia? Why Doctor-Assisted Suicide? Why Now? :: Euthanasia Physician Assisted Suicide Why Euthanasia? Why Now?      Ã‚   Americans wonder why the big push for legalizing euthanasia and assisted suicide. After thousands of years of considering such practices sinful and illegal, why the vocal effort at changing policy? This paper will look closely at how and why the new pro-euthanasia/assisted suicide attitude is sweeping around the world.    The 89 year old woman died of dehydration starvation after six days without food and fluids, despite evidence that she had repeatedly asked for water. A scene from a drought-stricken Third World country or Nazi Germany? No. Ella Bathurst died October 28, 1984 at a prestigious Midwestem hospital in the USA. Mrs. Bathurst had been living alone until she fell and fractured her hip. She was treated at the hospital and then she was transferred to a nursing home. When she developed problems in swallowing, she was transferred back to the hospital for rehydration therapy. After three days, at the insistence of Mrs. Bathurst's daughter, the IV was discontinued and food and fluids were withheld. According to hospital records, Mrs. Bathurst was "alert and responsive" most of the time, yet she was not consulted regarding the withdrawal of food and water. (Gula)    Similar cases are occurring more frequently as a traditional medical standard - the presumption to treat -- is being eroded. Under common law, competent patients are able to refuse treatment, provided the decision is reasonable and based on sufficient information for informed consent. In the case of an incompetent or comatose patient, the usual method of determining treatment was for the physicians involved in the case to discuss treatment options with the family of the patient. It was presumed that the patient would want beneficial treatment and would not want to die of dehydration and starvation. Likewise, it was presumed that the family would want the best care for the patient. Physicians themselves swore to the Hippocratic Oath: "First, do no harm."    Unfortunately, this presumption in favor of treatment is being eroded in our society. Generally, through five means: the medical profession, pro-euthanasia organizations, state legislation, court opinions, and the media: 1. As an indication of where segments of the medical profession are heading, in March 1986 the judicial council of the American Medical Association (AMA) ruled that it is ethical for physicians to withhold "all means of life-prolonging treatment" from people in "irreversible" comas even if death is not imminent.

Hacking Essay -- Technology, White Hat, Back and Grey Hat

Determine if hacking into a Web site is ever justifiable, applying your theory to a real-world case in which someone hacked into a system, including the name of the company and details. In general, hacking or more specifically cracking is not justifiable due to the negative connotations associated with the term. Hackers are generally categorized into three categories, white hat, black or grey hat (Arnone, 2005). White hats are personnel that are often employed to find holes, penetrate or exploit a security system so the company can take corrective actions. Black hats are typically associated will malicious activity (cracking) such as developing and deploying viruses, worms, theft or damaging a system. The gray hats are somewhere in between the white and the gray hats. Arnone discusses how the federal government is utilizing hackers to test their own security measures and learn how to secure their systems by understanding how hackers operate and gain entry into network systems (Arnone, 2005). The white hat hacker has proven value by showing a company where their security vulnerabilities lie. White hackers are also in demand. They are hired by consultants for many Fortune 500 companies to find external and internal weaknesses and report them in order for those holes to be closed (Wiles, 2008). There are some instances in which hacking can be justified. Hacking for National Security can be justified although controversial. The military has been using hacking techniques for decades. While not specifically tied to a computer, they have deceived the enemy using fake radio broadcasts, such as the preparations for the invasion of Normandy in World War II. The military has monitored radio conversations by eavesdro... ... constantly evolving threats and increasingly sophisticated cyber criminals, AT&T works to stay one step ahead. The company's sophisticated network monitors, probes, and algorithms to identify known or suspected viruses, worms, and other Internet attacks – often destroying them before they reach an enterprise† (AT&T, 2011). AT&T stresses individual vigilance regarding their personal account information. AT&T will never ask for any account information via e-mail or over the phone. Should you receive such inquiries, treat it as fraudulent. AT&T has alerted the cyber task force of the Federal Bureau of Investigation to provide assistance and examine our security systems to prevent a future breach. We treat this breach very serious and maintaining your trust is our highest priority and we apologize for the incontinence this security breach caused. Sincerely,

Human Evolution Essay

There is a theory that humans descended from an earlier, lower form of life. There is an assortment of evidence that shows that all living creatures on Earth descended from a common ancestry. Evolution doesnt discriminate against humans. It is believed that we too are a product of an earlier predecessor. The similarities in all life are evident if you consider that every form of life builds from the same building blocks–20 essential amino acids, four nitrogen bases, and simple sugars. Each of Earths past and present forms of life are, or were composed of a combination of those building blocks called RNA or DNA. In the very beginning of life on Earth, the genetic structure was very simple, but as time has gone by, the best combinations in the genetic sequence were individuals that reproduced. Over the approximated 3.5 billion years that life has been in existence on Earth, there have been many mutations in the genetic codes of different forms of life. Only very few of the genetic mutations are indeed beneficial to the function of the species. Negative mutations give the life form a disadvantage for survival, thus reducing its chances for reproduction, but a positive mutation gives the species an advantage to survive and produce offspring. The offspring have a copy of the positive mutation now in their genetics to eventually pass down to their young and so on. Now you can see how the positive mutations have a way of piling up into different piles, which is why our result is a widely diverse life, which exists on Earth today. This theory of how evolution came to be is known as natural selection. It states that a weaker individual has a lesser chance for survival and reproduction than that of a stronger. Its natures way of weeding out the bad and seeding the good. In the study of evolution, evolutionary scientists try to find the ancestry and genetic relations between organisms. They try to map out the path of the ancestry between organisms over the existence of the Earths history. Another essential part of the study of evolution is actually making educated predictions of the history of a species. The history of a species includes the geographical distributions and the species population over time. All of the information that follows is valid in that it has genetic and fossilized evidence to prove its merit. Some of the most important aspects  that make a human different from its ancestors are the development of communication, brain function, and the ability to walk upright, which frees up the hands to embark on other tasks. Language is considered by many to be the most unique of all the human attributes. As strange as it may sound, genetically we are the most similar to that of primates as any other known living creature on Earth. The primate family includes chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas and even humans. Other than genetic similarities, we can show other likenesses in the tissue physiology and also by comparing brains circuits in a brain analysis. Humans are a prime example of natural selection. The domination of the world by the superior present day human is what ended all similar species. The species that we dominated were our greatest competition for food, intelligence, and essentially our very existence on this planet. When we beat our predecessor, we did it in a fight for our lives, not so much as an act of violence. In many cases, Humans may have killed our ancestors in a misunderstanding, not knowing why a similar being was so much more savage and violent. We may have protected our families by attacking these beastlike creatures. The first things that we need to know are, Who were our first ancestors? Why did they evolve? What did they look like? And how did they live? Without this information, we will not know what we have arisen from. The most likely place to look for our fossilized lineage is in the environment of our closest living relatives–Africa. This is the reason that most of our archeological digs have been occurring on this continent. Of the fossils found, the skulls have been the most important because by knowing the structure of the skull, we can see how distant their relations are to us. Since one of the most significant changes is brain size and function, the brain and brain cavities provide a lot of evidence for evolutionary change. We know about brain function from fossils because sometimes, even the brain is preserved inside the fossilized skulls. Our most distant known lineage into the human path is very much similar to that of a chimpanzee. This creature was known as Australopithecus afarensis and can be dated back to 3.2 million years ago. A. afarensis was still very similar to a chimp. The brain size was no larger than ours. The finger bones were still curved, showing that it was still quite comfortable in the trees. Even though it was slightly similar, it was still very different. A. afarensis had smaller canines than a chimpanzees. The face structure was more vertical with less snout. The spinal column was more upright than that of a chimp. The hip bones also showed something unusual–this animal walked upright. This was the first step in our direction from that of our most distant living relative. The famous Lucy fossil was the remains of an A. afarensis. This fossil showed that the A. afarensis, although different than chimps, still had a small rib cage and a large gut that was fit for digesting the large amount of vegetation that made up their diet. From the large gut, we can speculate that the diet of A. afarensis consisted of still mainly vegetation, and not yet much protein. While the Australopithecus afarensis existed, there was a great climate change in Africa. The once tropical African continent warmed and the main portion of the continent closest to the equator turned to dry grassland. The food that A. afarensis was accustomed to eating, had disappeared. Many of the chimps, like other animals, migrated south to the bottom tip of Africa. There in the forest, this upright primate had a disadvantage to the chimps, so it quickly died off in the forests. The Australopithecus that stayed had to adapt to survive. There was very limited food that these creatures could digest; they could not process the fibrous grasses that covered the plains. The Australopithecus split into two different forms of the species–a robust more animal-like version and a graceful more human-like model. The robust version adapted to eat the roots of plants. The tough root and difficult dig to obtain the meal resulted in a large-jawed, thick-skulled, digging creature. The smaller, more graceful was the one humans are in closest relation to. We find it evident in the size and shape of the brain found in fossils. These are the first of our ancestors that used stone tools. These  stone tools were the adaptation that fueled their kind. The stone tools at the time and great intelligence were what allowed them to obtain food. When scavenging for food, they would take a completely cleaned animal carcass and using their simple stone sledges, smash open bones and eat the protein rich marrow from within. They would also use their hammers to crack open the skull to obtain the brain, which was also rich in protein. The advantage here is that they had no competition for their newly found food because no other creature could access these meat reserves. The protein they were ingesting was food that was high in energy and much easier to digest than plant material. After generations went by, the large digestive track was slowly shortened because it was no longer needed. As the size of the animal lessened, the ratio between weight and energy rose. This gave room for the brain of these graced Australopithecus to adapt to the environment, and since intelligence is what kept this branch alive, their intellect developed more. The individuals who where the most intelligent made the best tools, and thus had a better chance for survival and reproduction. Tools, meat, and larger brains were the reasons that this species strived, but if you take out any of these vital parts, the others couldnt develop. Homo erectus is the next known ancestor down the branch to humanity. He dates back to 1.8 million years. H. erectus looked much like human, but still had a mind no more complex than a chimps. The brain of H. erectus was still 30% smaller than our own. Homo heidelbergensis shows much more human-like characteristics than its predecessor, Homo erectus. The first evidence of H. heidelbergensis in Europe dates back to .5 million years ago. There have been 5 tons of remains found in circle patterns in a small area. The circle patterns are evidence that they were living in round, maybe hut-like enclosures. When you consider the small area in which they were found, you can see that possibly they lived in a small community. Now living in Europe, having shelter was essential because Europe was a great deal cooler than their arid grasslands in Africa. Shelter is probably what allowed them to venture out of Africa for the first time, because without that support, they would surely freeze in the cold season. In a cave in Italy, scientists have found the skeletal  remains of one of these male creatures and the skeleton was preserved quite well. Deep in this cave, it has been partially covered by crystals that the cave has formed. By measuring the size of these bones, we know the size of this creatures male gender. This Creature used stone tools, but they used better stone like flint. Their tools were much sharper and lighter. They have found that they chipped hand axes out of flint that are much more complex than that of the previous. They also showed that they had many of the flint remains in one area, signifying that they used mass production to obtain their tools. They used theses sharp tools to butcher animals, meaning they had made the kill and no longer were only scavenging meat. At this time in history, animals, such as rhinoceros, elephants, lions and the largely extinct cave bear existed in Europe. H. heidelbergensis had a brain size very close to the size of a present day human. They used different tools when disassembling these large animals. They used large rocks for smashing bones, which enabled them to retrieve marrow from their thick bones. They harvested some of the bones from these creatures for tools in various activities. Their sharp flint tools were used to remove the meat from the bone. They also used antlers to dig and punch an initial hole in the carcass before butchering it. There is evidence that .5 million years ago when we know they had inhabited Europe, they not only were living there, but were also flourishing. This shows that they may have been there for many years prior. It isnt fully understood about why they migrated out of Africa and into Europe. In the new cooler climate, their edible vegetation was scarce; therefore there were less food options. The only two options were to scavenge or adapt. Our ancestors, like before, rose to the occasion and adapted to become hunters. They became hunters to eliminate scavenging against the ravage carnivores of their day. In Europe H. heidelbergensis was more advanced than the H. heidelbergensis of other areas. The advancements in the H. heidelbergensis of this area are evident in their tools. It is believed that the Europeans used language. This is proven by their methods of passing down knowledge. This much larger axe head was too large  for actual function. It was probably used as a model to show the detail of the axe head. Their scale model was proof that they must be teaching the art of tool making and in the process, using complex communication. This language was likely to be very simple to the language we know today, but it allowed them reflect on the past and to teach more efficiently. Even though their tools couldnt take down some of the larger prey, their intelligence proved itself again. They used swamps as traps, and would drive a large animal into a corner, where it would then have to retreat into the swamps. Once they entered, they couldnt escape the quicksand-like substrate. There is also evidence of the use wooden tools. Archeologists have found perfectly preserved wooden spears in the prehistoric swamps. When they examined the spears, they found that the tip was on the toughest part of the wood–the base. These spears were also found to be perfectly balanced, so they could be used as javelins. This was another step into humanity. They now had more food for themselves, their mate and their offspring. Neanderthals had a very robust build; they were short and very strong unlike anyone today. It is known from fossil records that Neanderthals disappeared at almost the exact time that that humans arrived. It has been widely believed for years that Neanderthals were our predecessors, but today we can tell that Neanderthals were a completely different, but almost parallel evolutionary relative. This is known by genetics. The last known Neanderthal fossil dates back to 28 thousand years ago. Before the humans invaded the land, the territory belonged to the Neanderthals. Their brains had completely different evolutionary paths than us; they may have appeared very similar to us, but were, in actuality, quite different. The brain of the Neanderthal evolved differently and not as drastically as that of the human brain. The evolution of the Neanderthals mind hit a plateau, and it is seen in the fossil records that the tools of the Neanderthals remained unchanged for a quarter million years before their extinction. Other than human competition, the main reason for the disappearance of the Neanderthals was a change in climate and landscape. They couldnt survive in an area with a disappearing habitat. They were so dependent on what they were accustomed to, that the transition couldnt be made and the result was an eventual  extinction of their species. In the rapidly cooling European areas, humans used their intelligence to adapt, but Neanderthals were isolated to pockets of still wooded areas. One by one, the Neanderthals died off. Homo sapiens date back to over 100,000 years ago, as the skull fossils found in Africa show. These humans were still quite primitive, but the bone structure was that of a present day human. Now that Neanderthals had disappeared, this meant less competition for our human ancestors. This is a perfect example of Charles Darwins theory of survival of the fittest. They couldnt adapt and died, and could no longer pass on their genes. We survived and we continue to procreate. Using decorative beads is one of the first examples of art in our species. One of the beads found was made of shell. The strange thing about this shell bead was that it was found hundreds of miles away from where it first lied. This is evidence that humans may have been trading with neighboring tribes. Another possibility is that they traveled the distance to retrieve the shell, but this proves that they were traveling into a much cooler climate. If they were able to survive in this cooler area, then they must have also been wearing warm clothing and building sturdy shelters. We have found decorative beads with the remains of Neanderthal bones. Not many of the recorded Neanderthals, in fact, used beads. Some consider that to show they used art also, but others believe it was simply them mimicking what they had seen their human counter parts doing. The Neanderthals beads were much more primitive, but that may be partially due to them being unable to grasp the function of the decoration as a form of self expression. This is a prime example of the similarities and differences in the minds of the two creatures. There is a theory that the last few Neanderthals had to interact with humans. In this theory, there is a possibility that some Neanderthals breed in hybridization between the two. If this were the case, then most of us would have traces of Neanderthal genes hidden in our genetic sequences. Humans used beads as barter and it aided in the process of large alliances and community. In their trades, they thought it was necessary for them to be civilized, which would also help shape, what we have become today. After they had migrated out of Africa, it was first believed that humans quickly inhabited Europe. Now, contrary to that belief, there is evidence that we slowly moved into Europe and had inhabited the new continent for quite some time. Humans were the most dominate of the two, taking over the food and habitat of the last living Neanderthals. Humans are the present day victors. We have shown our capabilities and superiority and only time will tell where we evolve from here. Anthony M AikinWork CitedDoolittle, Russell. â€Å"Evolution.† McGraw-Hill (2000): 4. Futuyma, Douglas. â€Å"Organic evolution.† McGraw-Hill (2004): 11. Rightmire, G. Philip. â€Å"Human evolution in Eurasia.† McGraw-Hill (2004): 4. Wilson, Edward. From So Simple A Beginning. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 2006. Dawn of man Vol. 1. Dir. John Lynch. Videocassette. British Broadcasting Corporation, 2000. Dawn of man Vol. 2. Dir. John Lynch. Videocassette. British Broadcasting Corporation, 2000. Dawn of man Vol. 3. Dir. John Lynch. Videocassette. British Broadcasting Corporation, 2000.

History of Criminal Justice Essay

The modern criminal justice system has evolved since  ancient  times, with new forms of  punishment, added  rights  for  offenders  and victims, and  policing  reforms. These developments have reflected changing  customs, political ideals, and economic conditions. In ancient times through the middle Ages,  exile  was a common form of punishment. During the  Middle Ages, payment to the victim (or the victim’s family), known as  wergild, was another common punishment, including for violent crimes. For those who could not afford to buy their way out of punishment, harsh penalties included various forms of  corporal punishment. These included  mutilation,  branding, and  flogging, as well as  execution. Though a prison,  Le Stinche, existed as early as the 14th century in  Italy, incarceration  was not widely used until the 19th century. Correctional reform in the United States was first initiated by  William Penn, towards the end of the 17th century. For a time,  Pennsylvania’s criminal code was revised to forbid  torture  and other forms of cruel punishment, with  jails  and  prisons  replacing corporal punishment. These reforms were reverted, upon Penn’s death in 1718. Under pressure from a group of  Quakers, these reforms were revived in Pennsylvania toward the end of the 18th century, and led to a marked drop in Pennsylvania’s crime rate. Patrick Colquhoun,  Henry Fielding  and others led significant reforms during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. [19] Definition Criminal justice  is the system of practices and institutions of  governments  directed at upholding  control, deterring  and mitigating  crime, or sanctioning those who violate  laws  with criminal penalties and  rehabilitation efforts. Those accused of crime have  protections  against abuse of investigatory and prosecution powers. The criminal justice system consists of three main parts: (1)  Legislative  (create laws); (2) adjudication (courts); and (3)  corrections  (jails, prisons, probation and parole). In the criminal justice system, these distinct agencies operate together both under the  rule of law  and as the principal means of maintaining the  rule of law  within  society. Policing The first contact an  offender  has with the criminal justice system is usually with the  police  (or  law enforcement) who investigate the suspected wrongdoing and make an  arrest, but if the suspect is dangerous to the whole nation, a national level  law enforcement agency  is called in . When warranted, law enforcement agencies or police officers are empowered to use force and other forms of legal coercion and means to effect public and social order. The term is most commonly associated with police departments of a  state  that are authorized to exercise the  police power  of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. The word comes from the  Latin  politia  (â€Å"civil administration†), which itself derives from the  Ancient Greek   , for  polis  (â€Å"city†). The first police force comparable to the present-day police was established in 1667 under King  Louis XIV  in France, although modern police usually trace their origins to the 1800 establishment of the  Marine Police  in  London, the  Glasgow Police, and the  Napoleonic  police of Paris. Police are primarily concerned with keeping the peace and enforcing  criminal law  based on their particular mission and jurisdiction. Formed in 1908 the  Federal Bureau of Investigation  began as an entity which could investigate and enforce specific federal laws as an investigative and â€Å"law enforcement agency† in the United States;[10]  this, however, has constituted only a small portion of overall policing activity. [11]  Policing has included an array of activities in different contexts, but the predominant ones are concerned with  order maintenance  and the provision of services. [12] Courts Courts of Law The courts serve as the venue where disputes are then settled and justice is administered. With regard to criminal justice, there are a number of critical people in any court setting. These critical people are referred to as the courtroom work group and include both professional and non professional individuals. These include the  judge,  prosecutor, and thedefense attorney. The judge, or magistrate, is a person, elected or appointed, who is knowledgeable in the law, and whose function is to objectively administer the legal proceedings and offer a final decision to dispose of a case. In the U. S. and in a growing number of nations,  guilt  or innocence (although in the U.S. a jury can never find a defendant â€Å"innocent† but rather â€Å"not guilty†) is decided through theadversarial system. In this system, two parties will both offer their version of events and  argue  their case before the court (sometimes before a judge or panel of judges, sometimes before a jury). The case should be decided in favor of the party who offers the most sound and compelling arguments based on the law as applied to the facts of the case. The prosecutor, or district attorney, is a  lawyer  who brings charges against a person, persons or corporate entity. It is the prosecutor’s duty to explain to the court what crime was committed and to detail what  evidence  has been found which incriminates the accused. The prosecutor should not be confused with a  plaintiff  or plaintiff’s counsel. Although both serve the function of bringing a complaint before the court, the prosecutor is a servant of the state who makes accusations on behalf of the state in criminal proceedings, while the plaintiff is the complaining party in civil proceedings. A defense attorney counsels the accused on the legal process, likely outcomes for the accused and suggests strategies. The accused, not the lawyer, has the right to make final decisions regarding a number of fundamental points, including whether to testify, and to accept a plea offer or demand a jury trial in appropriate cases. It is the defense attorney’s duty to represent the interests of the client, raise procedural and evidentiary issues, and hold the prosecution to its burden of proving guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. Defense counsel may challenge evidence presented by the prosecution or present exculpatory evidence and argue on behalf of their client. At trial, the defense attorney may attempt to offer a  rebuttal  to the prosecutor’s accusations. In the U. S. , an accused person is entitled to a government-paid defense attorney if he or she is in jeopardy of losing his or her life and/or liberty. Those who cannot afford a private attorney may be provided one by the state. Historically, however, the right to a defense attorney has not always been universal. For example, in  Tudor  England criminals accused oftreason  were not permitted to offer arguments in their defense. In many jurisdictions, there is no right to an appointed attorney, if the accused is not in jeopardy of losing his or her liberty. The final determination of guilt or innocence is typically made by a third party, who is supposed to be disinterested. This function may be performed by a judge, a panel of judges, or a  jury  panel composed of unbiased citizens. This process varies depending on the laws of the specific jurisdiction. In some places the panel (be it judges or a jury) is required to issue a unanimous decision, while in others only a majority  vote  is required. In America, this process depends on the state, level of court, and even agreements between the prosecuting and defending parties. Some nations do not use juries at all, or rely on theological or military authorities to issue verdicts. Some cases can be disposed of without the need for a trial. In fact, the vast majority are. If the accused confesses his or her guilt, a shorter process may be employed and a judgment may be rendered more quickly. Some nations, such as America, allow  plea bargaining  in which the accused pleads guilty,  nolo contendere  or not guilty, and may accept a diversion program or reduced punishment, where the prosecution’s case is weak or in exchange for the cooperation of the accused against other people. This reduced sentence is sometimes a reward for sparing the state the expense of a formal trial. Many nations do not permit the use of plea bargaining, believing that it coerces innocent people to plead guilty in an attempt to avoid a harsh punishment. The entire trial process, whatever the country, is fraught with problems and subject to criticism. Bias  and  discrimination  form an ever-present threat to an objective decision. Any prejudice  on the part of the lawyers, the judge, or jury members threatens to destroy the court’s credibility. Some people argue that the often Byzantine rules governing courtroom conduct and processes restrict a layman’s ability to participate, essentially reducing the legal process to a battle between the lawyers. In this case, the criticism is that the decision is based less on sound justice and more on the lawyer’s eloquence and  charisma. This is a particular problem when the lawyer performs in a substandard manner. The jury process is another area of frequent criticism, as there are few mechanisms to guard against poor judgment or incompetence on the part of the layman jurors. Judges themselves are very subject to bias subject to things as ordinary as the length of time since their last break. [13] Manipulations of the court system by defense and prosecution attorneys, law enforcement as well as the defendants have occurred and there have been cases where justice was denied. Interpol The  International Criminal Police Organization  (ICPO), widely known as  INTERPOL,[3]  is an  intergovernmental organizationfacilitating international police cooperation. It was established as the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) in 1923 and adopted its telegraphic address as its common name in 1956. Its membership of 190 countries provides a budget of around â‚ ¬60 million through annual contributions. The organization’s headquarters is in  Lyon, France. It is the second largest  intergovernmental organization  after the  United Nations  by  member states. In 2011, the Interpol General Secretariat employed a staff of 673 representing 93 member countries. [1]  Its current Secretary-General is  Ronald Noble, a former United States  Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement. Succeeding  Khoo Boon Hui, its current President is Deputy Central Director of the French Judicial Police  Mireille Ballestrazzi. In order to maintain as politically neutral a role as possible, Interpol’s  constitution  forbids it to undertake any interventions or activities of a political, military, religious, or racial nature. [4]  Its work focuses primarily on public safety,  terrorism,  organized crime,crimes against humanity,  environmental crime,  genocide,  war crimes,  piracy, illicit  traffic  in  works of art,  illicit drug  production,drug trafficking,  weapons smuggling,  human trafficking,  money laundering,  child pornography,  white-collar crime,  computer crime,intellectual property crime  and  corruption. Interpol’s headquarters are located in  Lyon, France. Corrections Offenders are then turned over to the correctional authorities, from the court system after the accused has been found guilty. Like all other aspects of criminal justice, the administration of  punishment  has taken many different forms throughout history. Early on, when civilizations lacked the resources necessary to construct and maintain prisons,  exile  and  execution  were the primary forms of punishment. Historically  shame  punishments and  exile  have also been used as forms of censure. The most publicly visible form of punishment in the modern era is the  prison. Prisons may serve as detention centers for prisoners after trial. For containment of the accused, jails are used. Early prisons were used primarily to sequester criminals and little thought was given to living conditions within their walls. In America, the  Quaker  movement is commonly credited with establishing the idea that prisons should be used to reform criminals. This can also be seen as a critical moment in the debate regarding the purpose of punishment. Punishment (in the form of prison time) may serve a variety of purposes. First, and most obviously, the incarceration of criminals removes them from the general population and inhibits their ability to perpetrate further crimes. A new goal of prison punishments is to offer criminals a chance to be rehabilitated. Many modern prisons offer schooling or job training to prisoners as a chance to learn a vocation and thereby earn a legitimate living when they are returned to society. Religious institutions also have a presence in many prisons, with the goal of teaching ethics and instilling a sense of morality in the prisoners. If a prisoner is released before his time is served, he is released as a parole. This means that they are released, but the restrictions are greater than that of someone on probation. There are numerous other forms of punishment which are commonly used in conjunction with or in place of prison terms. Monetary  finesare one of the oldest forms of punishment still used today. These fines may be paid to the state or to the victims as a form of reparation. Probation  and  house arrest  are also sanctions which seek to limit a person’s mobility and his or her opportunities to commit crimes without actually placing them in a prison setting. Furthermore, many jurisdictions may require some form of public or community service as a form of reparations for lesser offenses. In Corrections, the Department ensures court-ordered, pre-sentence chemical dependency assessments, related Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative specific examinations and treatment will occur for offenders sentenced to Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative in compliance with RCW 9. 94A. 660. Execution or  capital punishment  is still used around the world. Its use is one of the most heavily debated aspects of the criminal justice system. Some societies are willing to use executions as a form of political control, or for relatively minor misdeeds. Other societies reserve execution for only the most sinister and brutal offenses. Others still have outlawed the practice entirely, believing the use of execution to be excessively cruel or hypocritical. History of criminal law The first civilizations generally did not distinguish between  civil law  and criminal law. The first written codes of law were designed by the Sumerians. Around 2100-2050 BC  Ur-Nammu, the  Neo-Sumerian  king of  Ur, enacted the oldest written legal code whose text has been discovered: the  Code of Ur-Nammu although an earlier code of  Urukagina  of  Lagash  ( 2380-2360 BC ) is also known to have existed. Another important early code was the  Code Hammurabi, which formed the core of  Babylonian law. Only fragments of the early criminal laws of  Ancient Greece  have survived, e. g. those of  Solon  and  Draco. [2] The similarly significant  Commentaries  of  Gaius  on the  Twelve Tables  also conflated the civil and criminal aspects, treating theft or  furtum  as a  tort. Assault and violent  robbery  were analogized to trespass  as to property. Breach of such laws created an obligation of law or  vinculum juris discharged by payment of monetary compensation or  damages. The criminal law of  imperial Rome  is collected in Books 47-48 of the  Digest  After the revival of  Roman law  in the 12th century, sixth-century Roman classifications and jurisprudence provided the foundations of the distinction between criminal and civil law in  European  law from then until the present time The first signs of the modern distinction between crimes and civil matters emerged during the Norman  of England. The special notion of criminal penalty, at least concerning Europe, arose in Spanish Late Scolasticism (see  Alfonso de Castro), when the theological notion of God’s penalty (poena aeterna) that was inflicted solely for a guilty mind, became transfused into canon law first and, finally, to secular criminal law. [6]  The development of the  state  dispensing  justice  in a court clearly emerged in the eighteenth century when European countries began maintaining police services. From this point, criminal law had formalized the mechanisms for enforcement, which allowed for its development as a discernible entity. Objectives of criminal law Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or  sanctions  for failure to abide by its rules. [7]  Every crime is composed of  criminal elements. Capital punishment  may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or  corporal punishment  may be imposed such as  whipping  or  caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. Individuals may be  incarcerated  in  prison  or  jail  in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Confinement may be solitary. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.